Thank you for visiting. This article is the first installment in a series explaining the original texts of Confucianism.
This time, I take up Confucianism’s founder, “Confucius,” and the most important original text that conveys his words, the “Analects.” It is no exaggeration to say that all of Confucianism begins with this one book.
For an overview map of Confucianism’s original texts as a whole, please see this summary article.
Who Is Confucius — One Who Preached an Ideal in an Age of Chaos
“Confucius” (real name Kong Qiu, 551–479 BC) was born in the state of Lu in China’s Spring and Autumn period. At the time, the authority of the Zhou dynasty had declined, and it was an age of chaos in which each state contended.
Confucius was by no means of a blessed birth. He lost his father young, and studied hard in poverty, growing into a person versed in etiquette and the classics. He thought that recovering the order and morals of the good old Zhou dynasty was the very way to save the disordered world.
Trying to realize that ideal, Confucius aspired to be a statesman. But it did not go well in the state of Lu, and he wandered for more than ten years, taking his disciples and touring the various states, searching for a ruler who would adopt his ideal politics. In the end, no ruler appeared who would seriously use his ideal.
In his later years, having returned to his homeland in disappointment, Confucius devoted himself to education and the arranging of the classics. Accepting any who wished to learn regardless of status, his disciples are said to have reached 3,000, with 72 especially excellent leading disciples. Unfortunate as a statesman, he left an immeasurable influence on later ages as an educator.
World Mythology for Beginners (illustrated)View on Amazon →
The Origins of Religion: Why We Needed a ‘God’View on Amazon →
The “Analects” — the Record of Confucius’s Words
Confucius himself did not gather his teaching into a single book. The “Analects” is something his disciples and their disciples, after Confucius’s death, compiled by writing down his words and deeds and his dialogues with disciples.
So the Analects, rather than a systematic theoretical work, takes the form of a “collection of sayings,” gathering short words and dialogues. It consists of 20 books in all, and many chapters begin with the famous opening, “The Master said.”
Rather than fussy doctrine, the charm by which the Analects has been read for 2,500 years lies in how Confucius’s living voice in concrete scenes comes through. Each book is given, as its title, the opening two characters (for example, the first book is “Xue Er”), and is not organized by content. In the later Song dynasty, Zhu Xi placed this Analects at the head of the “Four Books,” which raised its position still further (the details are in Article 2).
Looking Back on Life — Confucius’s Autobiographical Words
Especially famous in the Analects is a passage of the “Wei Zheng” book, in which Confucius looked back on his own life in six stages.
At fifteen, I set my mind on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the Mandate of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was obedient. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired without overstepping the bounds.
It is a story of a lifelong maturing of character — setting his mind on learning at 15, becoming independent at 30, no longer being in doubt at 40 (the origin of the word “no doubts”), realizing the mission given by Heaven at 50 (“knowing the Mandate”), coming to listen to people’s words frankly at 60 (“obedient ear”), and at 70 no longer straying from the way even when acting as he pleased. As words like “no doubts” and “knowing the Mandate,” pointing to “forty” and “fifty,” are still used, this passage has melded into the very East Asian view of life.
Benevolence — the Most Important Virtue in Confucianism
At the center of Confucius’s teaching is “benevolence (ren).” This is held to be the highest virtue in Confucianism.
Benevolence is, in a word, “a heart that loves people, consideration.” When asked by a disciple, “What is benevolence?,” Confucius answered simply, “It is to love people.”
What showed that benevolence as a guide to concrete action is the following famous words.
Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself.
This means “do not do to others what you would not want done to you,” expressing the heart of consideration (shu) in a single phrase. Confucius too preached the “Golden Rule,” common to many of the world’s ethics.
Ritual — Giving Form to Benevolence
If benevolence is the inner heart, then what expresses it as concrete action and form is “ritual (li).” Ritual refers broadly to etiquette, social norms, ceremonies, and the like.
Confucius preached that “subduing the self and returning to ritual” — that is, restraining one’s own selfishness and returning to ritual — leads to benevolence. The heart (benevolence) and the form (ritual) are in a relationship like the two wheels of a cart. However much one thinks in the heart, it does not get through unless expressed in form; and form alone, without heart, becomes empty. Confucius valued this harmony of the inner and the outer.
The Gentleman — the Ideal Human Image to Aim For
The ideal character Confucius preached that he wanted people to aim for is the “gentleman (junzi).”
The gentleman was originally a word referring to “a person of high status,” but Confucius remade it into the meaning of “a fine person possessing virtue and cultivation, not by birth.” The idea that even one of low status can become a gentleman if they learn and strive was groundbreaking for the time. At the opposite pole is the immature person who chases only profit, the “petty person (xiaoren).”
Confucius depicted this ideal human image with many words, such as “the gentleman is harmonious but does not conform (cooperates, but does not easily go along).” And he thought that the ideal politics is “rule by virtue,” in which such a person of high virtue governs people by virtue, not by force.
Famous Sayings of the Analects Still Alive Today
The Analects has many words that resonate in the hearts of us today as well. In fact, many of the proverbs and four-character idioms we use in daily life derive from here.
| Saying | Meaning |
|---|---|
| To learn and at times review it — is this not also a joy? | To learn and review on occasion, what a joyful thing |
| Reviewing the old to know the new | Relearning old things and gaining new insight |
| Clever words and a fawning face — there is little benevolence in them | In one of smooth tongue and ingratiating manner, sincerity is scarce |
| To see what is right and not do it is to lack courage | To not act, knowing it is right, is to lack courage |
| Not to correct a fault — this is called a fault | Not correcting a fault is the true fault |
Most famous among them is the passage in which Confucius looked back on his own life. Beginning with “At fifteen, I set my mind on learning,” and continuing with “At thirty, I stood firm,” “At forty, I had no doubts,” “At fifty, I knew the Mandate of Heaven,” from these words were born the names for ages, such as “standing firm (30),” “no doubts (40),” and “knowing the Mandate (50).”
The Disciples Who Supported Confucius
What makes the Analects appealing is that not only Confucius, but his distinctive disciples and their dialogues are vividly depicted. Confucius was also a master teacher who changed his way of teaching according to the partner’s character and level of understanding. Let me introduce the representative leading disciples.
| Disciple | Character |
|---|---|
| Yan Hui | The first disciple Confucius loved most. Excellent in virtuous conduct, but sadly died young |
| Zilu | Rich in valor, straightforward and warm-hearted, a big-brother figure. Often scolded by Confucius |
| Zigong | A talented man excelling in eloquence and commercial sense, active in diplomacy too |
| Zengzi | A figure who valued “filial piety.” Held to have transmitted the “Great Learning” |
In particular, Yan Hui, who did not lose the joy of learning even in a poor life, was greatly praised by Confucius as “how worthy is Hui (how fine he is).” When that Yan Hui died early, Confucius is said to have wept aloud, “Alas, Heaven has destroyed me.” This is a scene in which the human side of Confucius, revered as a sage, can be glimpsed. That it is a record of such living exchange between master and disciple is also a reason the Analects is long loved.
To Learn More
Here are some related books. Reading them alongside this series lets you savor this world even more deeply.
A Complete History of Philosophy and ReligionView on Amazon →
An Illustrated Introduction to the World’s 5 Great MythologiesView on Amazon →
Conclusion
In this article, I explained in detail Confucianism’s founder Confucius and his original text, the Analects. How was it?
Confucius was a figure who, in an age of chaos, preached the recovery of good old morals and order. The Analects, which conveys his teaching, still transmits unfading wisdom, centered on the highest virtue “benevolence (consideration),” the “ritual” that gives it form, and the ideal image anyone can aim for, the “gentleman.”
In the next Article 2, I will explain the Four Books alongside the Analects — the “Great Learning,” “Doctrine of the Mean,” and “Mencius.”
I hope you’ll read the next article too.
📚 Series: The Original Texts of Confucianism (2/6)
