Thank you for visiting. This article is the fifth installment (the final one) in a series explaining the original texts of Confucianism.
In this final installment, I explain how the Confucianism that began with Confucius spread and developed through later history. How the teaching of a single unfortunate thinker became a presence that supported all of East Asia for 2,000 years — let us trace that journey.
For an overview map of Confucianism’s original texts as a whole, please see this summary article.
As One of the Hundred Schools of Thought
The Warring States period, continuing from the Spring and Autumn period in which Confucius lived, was the age of the “Hundred Schools of Thought,” in which thinkers of various lands freely competed.
Confucianism (the Confucian school) too was merely one school within it. There were many rivals — the Daoists (Laozi, Zhuangzi), who preached non-action and naturalness; the Legalists (Han Feizi), who preached governance by law; and the Mohists (Mozi), who preached impartial love. Confucius’s teaching was inherited and developed by successors such as Mencius and Xunzi, but at this point it was still merely one of many thoughts.
An Illustrated Introduction to the World’s 5 Great MythologiesView on Amazon →
World Mythology for Beginners (illustrated)View on Amazon →
Becoming the State Religion in the Han Era — to Orthodox Thought
The turning point came in the Han era. The earlier Qin Shi Huang had carried out the “burning of books and burying of scholars,” suppressing Confucians for thought control, and Confucianism took a great blow for a time.
But in the era of the Han Emperor Wu, by the advice of the Confucian Dong Zhongshu, the situation changed completely. Emperor Wu adopted Confucianism as the state’s orthodox learning (official learning). An official post specializing in teaching the Five Classics (Erudite of the Five Classics) was also established. By this, Confucianism leapt from one of many schools to the orthodox thought supporting the Chinese state and society.
The Keju — Classics Became the Road to Advancement
What made Confucianism’s position decisive was the civil-service examination for officials, the “keju.” Beginning in the Sui era and continuing about 1,300 years to the end of the Qing, in this system knowledge of the Four Books and Five Classics became the center of the exam.
This held great meaning. Regardless of family standing, if one studied the Confucian classics well, one could pass the exam and become a high official. That is, Confucian study became the regular route to success and advancement. Thus an enormous number of intellectuals came to recite and study the Four Books and Five Classics over their lifetimes, and Confucianism came to form the very root of East Asian cultivation.
Neo-Confucianism — the Grand Reconstruction of Confucianism
In the later Song era, Confucianism was greatly reborn. Its leading figure was the great scholar who has appeared repeatedly, Zhu Xi (1130–1200).
Zhu Xi systematically reconstructed the Confucianism of until then and established “Neo-Confucianism (Song learning, the new Confucianism).” He explained the world with the concepts of “principle (li)” and “material force (qi).” Behind all things there is a right principle, “li,” and it takes form as concrete matter, “qi.” And, holding that human nature too is this “li” itself (nature is principle), he preached that one can complete one’s character by probing the principle dwelling in all things one by one through learning (the investigation of things and extension of knowledge).
That Zhu Xi selected and valued the Four Books is as already seen. This Neo-Confucianism became the official learning (state-recognized learning) of the following Yuan, Ming, and Qing, and the mainstream of Confucianism.
The Yangming School — Knowing and Acting
The one who threw a sharp criticism at that Neo-Confucianism was Wang Yangming (1472–1529) of the Ming era. The learning he preached is called the “Yangming school.”
Whereas Neo-Confucianism preached “probe the principle dwelling in outer things,” Wang Yangming claimed “principle is not outside. It is precisely within one’s own heart (the heart is principle).” And, holding that everyone is born with an innate knowledge that knows good and evil, he valued bringing that out (the extension of innate knowledge).
What best expresses the Yangming school is the phrase “unity of knowledge and action.” This means “knowing and acting are originally one,” preaching that understanding in the head but not carrying it out cannot be called truly knowing. This teaching, valuing practice, later gave a great influence on the patriots of late-Edo Japan.
| Neo-Confucianism (Zhu Xi) | Yangming school (Wang Yangming) | |
|---|---|---|
| Where is principle | Within all things (nature is principle) | Within one’s own heart (the heart is principle) |
| Method | Probing the principle of things (investigation of things) | Bringing out the heart’s innate knowledge (extension of innate knowledge) |
| Point valued | Cultivation by study and reading | Practice and action (unity of knowledge and action) |
The Spread to East Asia
Confucianism, not staying in China, was widely transmitted to neighboring countries — Korea, Japan, and Vietnam — and became a common cultivation of East Asia.
In particular, in the Korean dynasty (Joseon), Neo-Confucianism was made the fundamental principle of the state, and Confucian ethics permeated every corner of society. In Japan too, Neo-Confucianism was valued as the shogunate’s official learning in the Edo period (Hayashi Razan and others), while it achieved its own development, with Nakae Toju becoming the founder of Japanese Yangming learning. Many of the values we still cherish — etiquette, respect for elders, diligence, and sincerity — are rooted in this long tradition of Confucianism.
Criticism and Reappraisal — Confucianism in the Modern Age
Confucianism, which supported China for two thousand years, was exposed to a fierce headwind in the modern age too. In the late Qing, intellectuals facing the decline of national power after defeat by the great powers came to think the cause was that “the old Confucian morals stagnated society.”
In 1905, the keju, which had continued for over 1,300 years, was abolished, and Confucianism ended its role as a system supporting the state. Further, in the “May Fourth Movement” around 1919, young intellectuals, with the slogan “down with the shop of Confucius,” harshly criticized Confucianism as old morals that are feudal and bind people. In particular, it became the target of fierce attack as a teaching that supports hierarchy and patriarchy. In late-20th-century China too, Confucianism continued to often be a target of criticism.
But in recent years, the situation is again changing. In modern China and East Asia, which achieved economic growth, the value of Confucianism, which values order, education, diligence, and family bonds, is being reappraised, and a movement of reappraisal is spreading, including the establishment of “Confucius Institutes,” bases spreading Chinese language and culture around the world. Even when criticized, Confucianism still quietly lives on within people’s sense of morality and view of family.
To Learn More
Here are some related books. Reading them alongside this series lets you savor this world even more deeply.
The Origins of Religion: Why We Needed a ‘God’View on Amazon →
A Complete History of Philosophy and ReligionView on Amazon →
Conclusion
In this article, I explained in detail Confucianism’s history and development. How was it?
Confucianism, from one school of the Hundred Schools, became the state religion (orthodox thought) in the Han era, and became the root of East Asian cultivation through the keju. Further, it was deepened as Neo-Confucianism in the Song era and the Yangming school in the Ming era, and spread to Korea and Japan.
The teaching of benevolence and ritual that Confucius preached has thus crossed 2,500 years, and still flows in the hearts of the people of East Asia.
With this, all six articles of the Confucianism original-texts series are complete. From the Four Books and Five Classics to its thought and history, I hope you have savored the world of Confucianism.
I also explain the original texts of other mythologies and religions. For the full list, please see the Summary of the World’s Mythology and Religion Original Texts.
For the strength of the gods and heroes, please also refer to this ranking article.
I hope you’ll read the next article too.
📚 Series: The Original Texts of Confucianism (6/6)
